(4) https://cipesa.org/2020/03/covid-19-in-africa-when-is-surveillance-necessary-and-proportionate/ (5) https://rsf.org/en/news/coronavirus-state-measures-must-not-allow-surveillance-journalists-and-their-sources (6) https://allafrica.com/stories/202107200394.html (7) https://doi.org/10.1080/23743670.2021.2009000 (8) Spooked-Surveillance of Journalists in South Africa, Right to Know Report (9) https://gijn.org/2018/07/24/south-africas-state-of-surveillance-how-journalists-are-targets-for-spying/ (10) https://allafrica.com/stories/202202110315.html (11) https://www.news24.com/news24/columnists/guestcolumn/william-bird-and-avani-singh-protecting-women-journalists-essential-for-democracy-media-free- dom-20210810 (12) https://www.ids.ac.uk/news/state-surveillance-of-citizens-going-unchecked-across-africa/ (13) https://www.nytimes.com/2021/12/04/world/africa/uganda-hack-pegasus-spyware.html (14) https://cipesa.org/2019/12/africa-in-the-crosshairs-of-new-disinformation-and-surveillance-schemes-that-undermine-democracy/ (15) https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000379589.locale=en (16) https://www.dataguidance.com/notes/botswana-data-protection-overview (17) https://citizenlab.ca/2020/12/running-in-circles-uncovering-the-clients-of-cyberespionage-firm-circles/ (18) https://www.business-humanrights.org/en/latest-news/report-uncovering-clients-cyberespionage-firm-circles/ (19) https://cpj.org/spyware/ (20) canarguments.org/2021/02/the-seven-african-governments-using-israeli-cyberespionage-tools/?fbclid=IwAR0cDybhIi3nQf2hRrzddSTkyeq_g3bqv8yR1SYe0eJS1rLNG_S-MpFNJEM (21) Civil society in the digital age in Africa: Identifying threats and monitoring pushbacks, CIPESA and Centre for Human Rights, 2020 (22) https://developingtelecoms.com/telecom-technology/mobile-financial-services/9799-zimbabwe-issues-econet-warrant-over-alleged-money-laundering.html (23) https://zimbabwe.misa.org/2020/07/24/court-grants-order-in-favour-of-misa-against-econet-search-warrant/ (24) https://theconversation.com/surveillance-laws-are-failing-to-protect-privacy-rights-what-we-found-in-six-african-countries-170373 (25) https://theconversation.com/how-south-africa-ranks-in-the-press-freedom-stakes-116009 (26) https://www.r2k.org.za/wp-content/uploads/R2K-Surveillance-of-Journalists-Report-2018-web.pdf (27) https://www.news24.com/news24/southafrica/news/sanef-condemns-alleged-illegal-surveillance-of-news24-journalist-by-crime-intelligence-20210308 (28) https://cpj.org/2021/02/south-african-journalist-sam-sole-on-landmark-court-victory-2008-surveillance-was-the-tip-of-the-iceberg/ (29) https://www.newsday.co.zw/2020/03/army-to-monitor-social-media/?cn-reloaded=1 (30) https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=youtu.be&v=Pn_Q_JpdYbE&app=desktop (31) https://citizenlab.ca/2020/12/running-in-circles-uncovering-the-clients-of-cyberespionage-firm-circles/ (32) https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20200721-zimbabwe-journalist-arrested-hopewell-chin-ono-was-charged-with-inciting-violence (33) https://www.news24.com/news24/africa/news/zimbabwe-court-clears-journalist-hopewell-chinono-over-incitement-of-public-violence-case-20211206 (34) https://misa.org/blog/high-court-quashes-chinonos-charge-on-publishing-falsehoods/ (35) https://www.pressreader.com/zimbabwe/the-standard-zimbabwe/20211107/281642488403852 (36) https://zimbabwe.misa.org/2021/12/06/analysis-of-the-data-protection-act/#:~:text=The%20object%20of%20this%20Act,their%20representatives%20and%20 data%20subjects%E2%80%9D. (37) https://ifex.org/botswana-media-groups-concerned-over-proposed-surveillance-law/ (38) https://www.ipsnews.net/2021/07/botswana-police-use-israeli-cellebrite-tech-search-another-journalists-phone/ (39) https://gijn.org/2021/05/19/how-botswana-police-use-us-and-israeli-technology-to-identify-press-sources/ (40) https://cpj.org/2021/06/botswana-police-charge-moeladilotlhoko-news-boiler-staff-with-criminal-trespass/ (41) https://www.achpr.org/legalinstruments/detail?id=69#:~:text=The%20Declaration%20establishes%20or%20affirms,to%20express%20and%20disseminate%20 information. (42) https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/1661346?ln=en (43) https://zimbabwe.misa.org/2021/11/05/arbitrary-social-media-surveillance-cause-for-concern/ (44) https://zimbabwe.misa.org/2021/03/10/concern-over-acquisition-and-use-of-surveillance-tools-in-zimbabwe/ GENDER AND ICT IN SOUTHERN AFRICA (1) Report of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences on online violence against women and girls from a human rights perspective, United Nations Human Rights Council A/HRC/38/47 (2018) https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/1641160 (2) UN Women ‘Online and ICT facilitated violence against women and girls during COVID-19’https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Headquarters/Attachments/ Sections/Library/Publications/2020/Brief-Online-and-ICT-facilitated-violence-against-women-and-girls-during-COVID-19-en.pdf (3) UNESCO ‘ The Chilling: Global trends in online violence against women journalists’ https://en.unesco.org/publications/thechilling (4) as in 3 above (5) Hate Speech is a harmful language that is targeted towards an individual’s identity, such as their gender or sexual orientation - Council of Europe ‘Types of Cyberviolence’ https://www.coe.int/en/web/cyberviolence/types-of-cyberviolence#Hate (6) Cyberstalking is an extension of stalking where perpetrators will use small, pernicious acts which eventually erode the victim’s sense of safety. ML Pittaro ‘Cyber stalking: An Analysis of Online Harassment and Intimidation’ (2007) STATE OF PRESS FREEDOM IN SOUTHERN AFRICA REPORT 2021 71 References