d(ii) Facebook ACCORDING to Data Reportal, Zimbabwe had about 1.2 million Facebook users in early 2023 [24]. With this number of users, Facebook is ranked second in social media popularity ratings. Though the platform is sought after for news updates, personalised communication and commentary, the Metaowned platform [25] has been flagged for disinformation, especially during the 2023 preelection environment [26]. With the issue of misinformation and fake news being topical, Meta’s analysis tools show that between 2022 and 2023, Facebook’s overall reach, including its advertising potential in Zimbabwe remained unaltered. According to DataReportal (2023), between October 2022 and January 2023, there were 200,000 fewer people in Zimbabwe whom marketers could target with Facebook advertising, a 13.3% decline [27]. This decline can be explained by how WhatsApp, a cheaper medium, has increasingly made inroads in the marketing and advertising space. However, Facebook only allows users 13 years and older to use its site, so it is important to note that 12.2% of Zimbabwe’s “eligible” population will use Facebook in 2023. For added context, in January 2023, Facebook’s advertising reach in Zimbabwe was equal to 22.7% of the nation’s internet users (across all age groups). d(iii) Instagram IN 2023, it was anticipated that Instagram’s advertising reach in Zimbabwe was at 381,700 users in early 2023, or 2.3% of the country’s population [28]. The majority of platform users are more interested in social issues than political information, even though political players use the platform to distribute campaign materials and statements. However, Instagram only allows users aged 13 and above to access its site, so it is important to know that 3.6% of Zimbabwe’s “eligible” population will use Instagram in 2023. It is also important to note that at the beginning of 2023, Instagram’s advertising reach in Zimbabwe was equal to 6.7% of all local internet users (regardless of age). Early in 2023, Zimbabwe’s Instagram ad audience comprised 59.1% men and 40.9% women. d(iv) X, formerly Twitter DESPITE the prevalence of false information and deception, X, formerly Twitter, has become a significant forum for national concerns in Zimbabwe. Recognising X’s power to influence public opinion, political parties, civil society organisations, and the Zimbabwe Electoral Commission have all shown a predilection for using it. For Zimbabweans, X has developed into a crucial political gathering place, fostering a thriving network of political commentators and providing an important space for discussions 24 on politics that are difficult to convene physically owing to the limitations in civic and democratic space. X is used for critical debate, allowing citizens to publicly share their opinions about the nation’s affairs despite the repercussions of criticising the ruling party [29]. Additionally, posts on the platform use less data as they tend to be short, making them a more cost-effective choice than radio and television programmes that rely heavily on images or video [30]. Since the recent changes in X’s ownership, one of the stakeholders interviewed for this research stressed that recognising and blocking inauthentic actors on X has become more difficult. Early in 2023, according to the company’s own data, there were 75.6% men and 24.4%women within Zimbabwe’s X audience [31] . It is important to note, however, that X infers the gender of its users by examining signs like the names users submit in their profiles and their overall activity on the platform.