CHAPTER 4: AFRICAN MEDIA BAROMETER THEMATIC TRENDS: 2011-2021 As is evident in the AMBs, the paradox about this scenario is that such laws are often invoked in times of political and economic crisis (when assertive and free media are required the most), "...the paradox about this scenario is that such laws are often invoked in times of political and economic crisis..." with a chilling and restrictive effect. The 2020 AMB for Zimbabwe highlights some restrictive pieces of legislation, old and new. It notes that “the Official Secrets Act remains in effect and must be signed by those working for the state, restraining them from revealing information to the media”. Likewise, it points to how “the Censorship and Entertainment Control Act has also been used to ban theatre productions seen as anti-government”. Through analysing the AMBs, it seems apparent that most national constitutions explicitly provide for freedom of expression and/or freedom of the press; however, they also contain conditions that undermine this freedom. The news media’s operational environment is encumbered by overt and restrictive laws, including non-media-related laws with hidden provisions that can undermine the media when needed. The 2018 AMB for Cameroon notes that the country’s legislative restrictions on freedom of expression “are insidious in character”. The report mentions that “administrative authorities are empowered to maintain public order” and that power has been “repeatedly used to ban demonstrations, protests and press conferences”. It asserts that laws such as the Social Communication Law of 1990 “leave the notion of public order vague and subject to interpretation which administrative authorities can it (sic) discretionally”. In addition to such infringements on freedom of expression, the 2018 AMB also notes that “Cameroon has several pieces of legislation that directly restrict freedom of expression”. The 2021 AMB for Zambia highlights the Cyber Security Act and Cyber Crimes Act of 2021 for its potential to create a chilling effect on media operations as the Acts are not specific about what constitutes “responsible use of social media platforms”. This is in addition to what the AMB characterises as an “already treacherous environment for the operation of free and independent media”. The disjuncture between enabling constitutional provisions and other statutory instruments and the actual operational environment of the media is highlighted in many AMBs, including those for Zimbabwe, Madagascar, Mali, Cameroon, Benin, Botswana, Kenya, Uganda and Mozambique. In the case of Botswana, the most 13 AFRICAN MEDIA BAROMETER 11 YEARS IN REVIEW