“security services assaulted and harassed opposition candidates, supporters, and journalists attempting to cover the elections. Some areas experienced internet shutdowns immediately after the polls closed. Discrepancies in the vote tabulation process and documented instances of outright vote-rigging served as the backdrop for the announcement of a nearsweep for the ruling party . . . Mozambique’s own courts, not noted for their independence, have ordered reruns and recounts in several cities. Prominent figures within the ruling Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) party have denounced the heavy-handed tactics.” (3) expression. The lead up to the municipal elections, the announcement of results and the ensuing clampdown on civic space provides a strong indication of what Mozambicans should brace themselves for, ahead of presidential and general elections scheduled for October 2024. Although there was a low-intensity war last year, the conflict is still far from over. On the other hand, the conflict with Renamo, although latent, has not yet been fully resolved. Although the situation in Cabo Delgado appeared relatively contained in 2023 compared to prior years, recent developments have negated this progress. As the Centre for Strategic and International Studies reports: “The uptick in insurgent attacks this year in Cabo Delgado Province, after months of relatively lower levels of insurgent activity, underscores the long road Mozambique still faces in restoring security and stability to this area of the country.” (4) Sometimes, there are threats of its return. (5) The demobilisation process has been marked by protests due to what Renamo considers the government’s lack of seriousness. (6) In their analysis, Zitamar News explains: “The party will remain in a dominant position in Mozambique’s politics, as it controls all the machinery of government and public institutions, and it uses public funds to give it an advantage in elections. It remains to be seen how these results will impact internal dynamics within Frelimo in the run-up to presidential elections . . .” It is in this context that 2023 has become a particularly challenging year for the press, for free expression and the right to information, in Mozambique. In fact, issues of politics and peace significantly affect the environment and enjoyment of freedom of expression and of the press, access to information, pluralism of views and opinions. As mentioned already, the levels of State authoritarianism have increased considerably over the years and was strongly evident in 2023, following the peace recorded in the last 10 years or so, in which Mozambique has regressed in the main international indexes that measure the quality of democracy. Although the country has been grappling with a steady deterioration of press freedom environment over the last decade — 2023 — was particularly challenging for journalists in the country as the state of press freedom continued its trend of regressing with the added pressure of election related violations. The latest reports by Civicus, The Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) and Reporters Without Borders, for example, show how Mozambique has become an authoritarian country, albeit with formal democratic institutions. Press freedom In 2023, the EIU’s Democracy Index marked Mozambique as an authoritarian regime for the fifth year in a row, continuing a pattern that began in 2018 when the nation shifted from a hybrid democracy to an authoritarian regime. An electoral landscape marred by violence, intimidation, accusations of vote rigging and other election related activities, the bias displayed by the Constitutional Court, intraparty divisions within the main opposition party and a ruling party focused on retention of power had an enormous impact on the media. From the perspective of political practices and culture, Mozambique has been gravitating towards authoritarianism, accompanied by human rights abuses and assaults on freedom of expression and press freedom. The enabling right of freedom of expression allowing citizens to exercise their right to alternative opinions and also access to information, were under grave threat across the country. The Mozambican government has pursued regional and international assistance to manage the conflict in Cabo Delgado. However, its suppression of media coverage regarding the crisis has significantly impeded freedom of STATE OF PRESS FREEDOM IN SOUTHERN AFRICA 2023 These tensions, aggravated by the electoral developments led to physical and psychological 54